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Raised Bogs

Peat is a soil that is made up of partially rotted remains of dead plants which have accumulated on top of each other in waterlogged places for thousands of years. It consists of Sphagnum moss along with roots, leaves, flowers and seeds of heathers, grasses and sedges. Occasionally the trunks and roots of trees such as Scots pine, oak, birch and yew are also present.

Areas where peat accumulates are called "peatlands" or "bogs". There are three main types of peatland in Ireland.

· Blanket Bogs, which consist of a carpet of peat extending over large areas of land. Their nutrient supply is obtained from rainfall. There are two types: (i) Lowland blanket bogs which are found in low-lying (below 200m) areas of western counties. (ii) Mountain blanket bogs which are found in mountainous areas (above 200m) throughout the country.

· Raised Bogs, are dome-shaped bogs which have developed in former lake basins in midland counties. Their nutrient supply is obtained from rainfall.

· Fens, flat bogs which are found around lake margins and in waterlogged areas where there is a supply of mineral-rich waters. (Raised bogs develop on top of fens when the mineral-rich water supply is cut off.)

Some of the characteristics of these three peatland types are summarised in Table 1. Figure 1 shows a map of the distribution of Irish peatlands.

Figure 1: Distribution of peatlands in Ireland (Fens are widely distributed and are not shown).

TABLE 1: CHARACTERISTICS OF IRISH PEATLANDS

	Fen	Raised Bog	Blanket Bog
Soil pH	7-8 alkaline	3.5 acid	4.2 acid
Annual Rainfall	800-900 mm	800-900mm	>1,200mm
Location	Lakeshore throughout	Midlands Bann Valley	Western lowlands Mountains
Peat depth	up to 2m	up to 12m	2-6m
Shape	flat	domed	flat, sloped & undulating
Formation	lake basins	lake basins	mineral soil
Common Plant (examples)	saw sedge black bog rush purple moor grass common reed fen rush brown mosses bog bean fen thistle ragged robin pond weed angelica	Sphagnum mosses bog cotton ling heather cross leved heath bog rosemary cranberry bog asphodel beak sedge deer sedge sundew Cladonia lichens	black bog rush purple moor grass bog cotton deer sedge black moss red worm liverwort Sphagnum moss sundew tormentil milkwort lousewort
Common Animals (examples)	cranefly damselfly dragonfly water snail common frog black slug moths butterflies	cranefly damselfly dragonfly emperor moth common frog black slug Irish hare pond skater	cranefly damselfly dragonfly emperor moth common frog black slug Irish hare otter
Common Birds (examples)	lapwing snipe little grebe mallard whooperswan grey heron coot	red grouse curlew snipe meadow pipet skylark kestrel hooded crow	red grouse golden plover curlew merlin meadow pipet skylark snipe
Rare and protected plants *	narrow leaved marsh orchid round leaved wintergreen	bog orchid	bog orchid marsh saxifrage bog hair grass mackays heath slender cotton grass
Protected Birds **	whoopewr swan hen harrier peregrine falcon	greenland white-fronted goose	greenland white-fronted goose golden plover merlin

*The Irish Red Data Book (Curtis & McGough 1988)

**Listed in Annex 1 of EC Directive on Conservation of Wild Birds 1979

WHY PEAT ACCUMULATES

Soil micro-organisms need oxygen in order to break down dead plants completely. This breaking down process is called "decomposition" and can be summarised as follows:

Dead plants + Oxygen + Soil Microbes = Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy

Waterlogged soils are very poor in oxygen so complete decomposition of dead plants cannot take place. The dead plant remains accumulate as peat and their energy is trapped and concentrated - the reason why peat is used for fuel. Partial decomposition of dead plants produces organic acids which further hinder the work of soil microbes in decomposition.

In Ireland two factors contribute to the existence of peatlands.
High Rainfall: The west, south west and north west of Ireland experience over 175 rain-days each year. Lowland blanket bogs are found extensively in these high rainfall areas. Mountain blanket bogs occur in upland areas throughout the country which experience 175-200 rain days a year.

Poor Drainage: At the end of the last ice age, about 10,000 years ago, the central lowlands of Ireland were left with many poorly drained basins of calcareous boulder clay. Water accumulated in these basins, creating lakes, which gradually became totally overgrown with fen vegetation and infilled with fen peat. As the depth of peat grew, the plants on the surface soon became cut off from mineral-rich water below. The nutrient-demanding fen plants were replaced by bog mosses and plants which could survive on the few nutrients which were present in rainfall. The fen peat below prevented the rainwater draining away, while the bog mosses soaked it up like a sponge (Figure 2).

A climatic change about 4,000 years ago resulted in high rainfall and high humidity levels in Ireland, particularly in the western counties and in mountainous areas. Under such conditions soil minerals, such as iron, were leached from the surface layers of the soil, and in extreme cases this led to the development of an impermeable iron pan lower down the soil profile. Rainwater was thus prevented from draining away, the soil became permanently waterlogged, and peat started to accumulate (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Peatland types in Ireland

IRISH BOGS ARE UNIQUE IN EUROPE

Peatland soils cover some 5% to 8% of the world's land surface. Scientists have estimated that there is between 386 and 409 million hectares spread across five continents. Because peat formation is generally closely linked to climate, much of the world resource lies in the northern temperate zone. This concentration of peat in some of the most industrialised countries of the world has meant that between the 16th century and the present day, vast tracts of peat landscape have vanished from Europe as technology and development have steadily advanced. These changes undoubtedly helped to transform the economies of certain regions and sometimes whole nations. However, the environmental cost of this progress now means that some western nations can point to a date in the near future when, without direct conservation effort, the very last natural peatlands will have vanished forever. For others it is already too late; all natural peatlands or bogs in the Netherlands and Poland have been lost and Switzerland and Germany each have only 500 hectares remaining. In the United Kingdom there has been a 90% loss of blanket bogs and only 125,000ha remains, and a 98% loss of raised bogs with only 1,170ha remaining. In Eastern Europe a new threat facing many of the peatlands - including protected sites - is the eastwards expansion of western European peat mining companies. When survey information is made available, significant peatland losses are expected to be reported in Eastern Europe.

The loss of peatland habitats has also been reflected in Ireland, contradicting the perception that we have abundant peat resources with development pressure being relatively recent. In fact there has been a 92% loss of raised bogs and an 82% loss of blanket bogs in Republic of Ireland. In Northern Ireland there have also been extensive losses. Only 10% of the original area of raised bogs and 14% of blanket bog remains of conservation interest. At current rates of exploitation it has been estimated that all unprotected raised bogs and blanket bogs will be extinct early in the new century.

LOST PEATLAND HERITAGE

The disappearance of the Irish bogs would have serious international consequences. For various plant and animal species the last western European refuge would be destroyed. Several species of birds would lose important wintering grounds. A type of landscape which once was characteristic for large parts of Western Europe, and which is unique for its spaciousness and quiet, and its cultural heritage would be annihilated. Pollen and archaeological remains preserved in peat represent a most important archive for the history of man and the landscape since the Ice Age. The education potential of peatlands is only just being realised. An ecosystem which has so far been studied only incompletely, and which has been providing important ecological insights into hydrology, carbon fixation and environmental change would be lost for further research.

 Table 2: Area and number of peatlands of conservation importance in Ireland 1998

Bog Type	Area (ha)	No. of Sites	% of original area
Raised Bog	23,628	164	8
Blanket Bog	143,248	233	18
Fen	54,026	221	58
Total	220,902	618	19

Ireland is in a unique position in Europe in that it possesses almost 200,000ha of actively growing raised and blanket bogs and fens which are of increasing European conservation importance. Therefore the European Community has a key role to play in conserving this resource. The importance of conserving Irish peatlands has been recognised by the international community in the Council of Europe's recommendations to member states on Peatlands in Europe, the European Parliament's "Resolution on the Protection of Irish Bogs", the International Mire Conservation Group and the European Union's Habitats Directive.

CONSERVATION OF IRELAND'S PEATLANDS

Although peatlands originally covered more than 17% or 1,178,798ha of the land surface in the Republic of Ireland (Hammond 1979), the introduction of large-scale, mechanised turf extraction schemes in the 1940's for fuel and horticultural peat, afforestation programmes commencing in the 1950's, intensification of agriculture following Ireland's entry to the European Community in 1973 and land reclamation have seriously depleted the area of peatland suitable for conservation (Figure 3). Today only 19% of the peatland resource remains in a relatively intact condition (220,902ha).

Only a small proportion of Ireland's vast peatlands is still of conservation importance (Table 2). In view of the well-organised development of peatland, i.e. forestry, overgrazing and commercial extraction, a major conservation campaign is now under way to slow down the rate of such development and accelerate the rate at which sites of scientific and conservation interest are acquired for conservation.

The Irish Peatland Conservation Council, a non government organisation formed in 1982 in response to the threatened destruction of Irish peatlands, aims to ensure the conservation of a representative sample of peatland types in Ireland. Its Peatland Conservation Plan 2000 documents a peatland conservation campaign which includes lobbying, education, publicity and fund-raising (Foss & O'Connell 1996).

In 1987 the Irish Government committed itself to a peatland conservation plan that involved acquiring 10,000ha of raised bogs and 40,000ha of blanket bogs for conservation at a cost of £20-£30 million (Treacy 1990). No target figure has yet been announced for the fen peatland type occurring in Ireland. To date the area of raised bog protected is 4,397ha or 44% of the official raised bog target. The area of blanket bog protected is 35,397ha or 88% of the official blanket bog target. (Table 3). The different peatland sites, which have been conserved are protected either as National Nature Reserves under the Wildlife Act 1976 or they are included within National Parks.

Great conservation progress has been made in the protection of blanket bogs as many of these occur within national parks and national nature reserves. For raised bogs however progress has been slower with less than half the target achieved. In the last ten years 50 commercial moss peat extraction companies have set up operations on raised bogs. Between 1994 and 1996 twenty-three internationally important raised bogs were vandalised through moss peat extraction. Only peat extraction developments exceeding 50ha in extent are subject to planning control.

Many of our protected peatlands are in urgent need of repair if they are to survive this decade. The pressure on this natural resource continues unabated and without public knowledge. Strong links have been forged between the IPCC and the Dutch Bog Conservationists and together we will take action for bog conservation.

TABLE 3: Area of protected peatlands in Ireland 1998

The table shows the original area of peatlands in three main categories based on figures published by Hammond (1979), the areas earmarked for conservation by the Irish Government and the % of the target areas conserved in 1998. (N/A = data not applicable).

	Raised Bog	Blanket Bog	Fen	Total
Original Peatland	311,300	774,990	92,508	1,178,798
Area (ha)	(100%)	(100%)	(100%)	(100%)
Government Target Area for Conservation (ha)	10,000	40,000	N/A	50,000
(% Original Area)	(3.2%)	(5.2%)	N/A	(4%)
Area Conserved (ha)	4,397	35,397	705	40,499
(% Original Area)	(1.4%)	(4.6%)	(0.7%)	( 3.4%)
Percentage of Government Target Conserved	44%	88%	N/A	81%

FURTHER INFORMATION

Up to date information on the IPCC's Save the Bogs Campaign is available on line at IPCC's web site.

FURTHER READING

Bellamy, D. (1986) The Wild Boglands - Bellamy's Ireland, Country House, Dublin.
Curtis, T.G.F. and McGough, H.N. (1988) The Red Data Book, 1 Vascular Plants, The Stationery Office, Dublin.
Cross, J.R. (1989) The Raised Bogs of Ireland, their Ecology, status and conservation, The Stationery Office, Dublin.
Cross, J.R. (1989) Peatlands Wastelands or Heritage? An Introduction to Bogs and Fens, The Stationery Office, Dublin.
Feehan, J. and O'Donovan, G. (1996) The Bogs of Ireland. University College Dublin. The Environmental Institute.
Foss, P.J. and O'Connell, C.A. (1996) Irish Peatland Conservation Plan 2000. Irish Peatland Conservation Council, Dublin.
Foss, P.J. and O'Connell, C.A. (1998) The IPCC Peatland Conservation and Management Handbook. Irish Peatland Conservation Council, Dublin.
Foss, P.J., O'Connell, C.A. and Duggan, D. (1997) The Save the Bogs Story. Irish Peatland Conservation Council, Dublin.
Hammond, R.F. (1979) The Peatlands of Ireland, Soil and Survey Bulletin, No 35 An Foras Taluntais (Teagasc), Dublin.
Mitchell, F. (1986) The Shell Guide to Reading the Irish Landscape, Country House, Dublin.
Mollan, C. (1989) ed. The Utilisation of Irish Midland Peatlands, Royal Dublin Society, Dublin.
O Ceallacháin, C.N. (1980) Siar trí na Portaigh, Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath.
O'Connell, C. (1987) ed. The IPCC Guide to Irish Peatlands, Irish Peatland Conservation Council, Dublin.
O'Leary, G. and Gormley, F. (1998) Towards a Conservation Strategy for the Bogs of Ireland. Irish Peatland Conservation Council, Dublin.
Ryan, J.B and Cross, J.R. (1984) Conservation of Peatlands in Ireland, Proceedings of the 7th International Peat Congress, Dublin.
Treacy, N. (1990) Closing Address to the Peatlands in Perspective Symposium, in Schouten, M.G.C. and Nooren, M.J. (1990) Peatlands, Economy and Conservation, SPB Academic Publishing, The Hague, Netherlands.
Union of Professional and Technical Civil Servants (1987) Our Natural Heritage: A policy for Nature Conservation in Ireland, Dublin.

Dr. Catherine O'Connell, IPCC